India and Southeast Asia

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Fasting Buddha This sculpture of the Buddha, showing the effects of a

Caves at Ajanta During the fifteen-year reign of its founder, Chandra

Ashoka's column The best preserved of the pillars that King Ashoka

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India and Southeast Asia

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1	Chapter 6 India and Southeast Asia.	25	air. It weighs about 50 tons, making its
1	1500 B.C.E – 600 C.E.		erection a remarkable feat of engineering.
2	The Indian Subcontinent. India has		Like other Ashokan pillars, it is
	three topographical zones (1) the northern		inscribed with accounts of Ashoka's
	mountainous zone (2) the Indus and Ganges		political achievements and instructions to
	Basins (3) the peninsula.		his subjects on proper behavior. These
3	The peninsula itself includes further		pillars are the earliest extant examples
	topographical sub-regions including. (1)		of Indian writing and a major historical
	tropical Kerala coast in the west (2)		source for the Mauryan period.
	Coromandel Coast in the east (3) flat area		(Borromeo/Art Resource, NY). Copyright ©
	of Tamil Nadu in the south (4) island of		Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights
	Sri Lanka.		reserved. Ashoka's column.
4	Peninsular India and the Ganges Valley	26	Commerce and Culture in an Era of
	have a subtropical climate and plentiful		Political Fragmentation. The Mauryan
	rainfall The Indus Valley is dry and		empire collapsed in 184 b.c.e. Northern
	agriculture there relies on irrigation The		India fell into a period of political
	staple crop of the Ganges Delta is rice;		fragmentation that included rule of the
	elsewhere, the staple crops are wheat,		northwest by the Shakas (Scythians, 50
	millet, and barley.		b.c.e.–50 c.e.) and the Kushans (50–240
5	This geographical diversity has made		c.e.). Political fragmentation in northern
	it very difficult for any political power		India was accompanied by economic
	to unify all of India for any great length		development in which guilds of artisans
	of time.		and merchants played a dominant role.
6	The Vedic Age- Refers to: Vedas, the	27	The period of political fragmentation
	oldest preserved Indo-Aryan texts Vedic		was also characterized by cultural
	Sanskrit, language Vedic period, in which		development that included the writing of
	the Vedas were produced. Indo-European		the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The
	warriors migrated into India They were		latter includes the famous Bhagavad-Gita,
	organized in patriarchal families and		which addresses the contradiction between
	kinship groups After 1000 b.c.e. some of		duty to society and duty to one’s own
	them began to push into the Ganges Valley,		soul. The Bhagavad-Gita suggests that this
	using new iron tools to cut down trees and		contradiction can be resolved when one is
	cultivate the land The oral tradition of		aware that any form of disciplined action
	these light-skinned Arya tribes tells of a		taken without regard for personal benefit
	violent struggle between themselves and		is a service to the gods. The period also
	the darker-skinned Dravidian-speaking		saw developments in herbal medicine and
	Dasas, whom they evidently pushed into		linguistics.
	southern India.	28	During the period of political
7	Caste or Varnas system. The struggle		fragmentation in the north, central and
	between Aryas and Dasas led to the		south India experienced different patterns
	development of the system of varna,		of development. The Andhra dynasty
	meaning “color” but equivalent to “class.”		established an independent state in the
	Under this system, people were born into		Deccan (second century b.c.e. to second
	one of four varna.		century c.e.). In southern India, divided
8	(1) Brahmin (priests/scholars) (2)		among three Tamil kingdoms: Cholas,
	Kshatriya (warriors) (3) Vaishya		Pandyas, and Cheras, this was a period of
	(merchants) (4) Shudra (peasant/laborer) A		great artistic achievement.
	fifth group, Untouchables, was outside the	29	The Gupta Empire, 320–550 c.e. Like
	system and consisted of persons who did		the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta Empire began
	demeaning or ritually polluting work such		with the kingdom of Magadha. The rulers of
	as work that involved contact with the		the Gupta Empire brought northern and
	dead bodies of animals or humans.		central India under their control, but not
9	The four varna were subdivided into		the south. Like the Mauryan rulers, the
	hereditary occupational groups called jati		Guptas controlled iron deposits,
	(also known by the Portuguese word caste)		established state monopolies, and
	Jati were also arranged in order of		collected a 25 percent agricultural tax.
	hierarchy; complex rules governed the		However, they were never as strong as the
	appropriate occupation, duties, and		Mauryan Empire.
	rituals of each jati and laid forth	30	The Guptas used their army to control
	regulations concerning interaction between		the core of their empire, but provincial
	people of different jati.		administration was left to governors who
10	Religion. The systems of varna and		often made their posts into hereditary and
	jati were rationalized by belief in		subordinate kingdoms and kinship groups.
	reincarnation According to this belief,	31	Because the Gupta did not have
	each individual has an immortal spirit		sufficient military force, they exercised
	(atman) that will be reborn in another		power as a “theater-state,” redistributing
	body after death. One’s station in the		profits and luxury goods from trade and
	next life depends on one’s actions (karma)		dazzling its dependents with elaborate
	in this and previous lives.		ceremonies in return for gifts and other
11	Vedic religion emphasized the worship		favors.
	of male deities through sacrifice	32	We have very little archaeological
	Religious knowledge and practice was the		data and few contemporary accounts from
	monopoly of the Brahmin priestly varna who		which to learn about the politics,
	memorized the rituals, prayers, and hymns		society, and culture of the Gupta period.
	and may have opposed the introduction of		We know that the court supported
	writing in order to maintain their		mathematics and astronomy and that Gupta
	monopoly in religious knowledge.		mathematicians invented our “Arabic”
12	Women. We do not know much about the		numerals and the concept of “zero.” We
	status or roles of women in the Vedic		also have the Chinese monk Faxian’s
	period They could study lore and		description of his journey through Gupta
	participate in rituals, they could own		India.
	land, and they married in their middle or	33	During the Gupta period, women lost
	late teens.		the right to inherit and own property and
13	Jainism and Buddhism. During the Vedic		to participate in key rituals, and were
	period, people who reacted against the		treated like the lowest varna (Shudra).
	rigid social hierarchy and against the		They were married very young, and in some
	religious monopoly of the Brahmins would		places a widow was required to burn
	withdraw into the forests where they		herself on her husband’s funeral pyre.
	pursued salvation through yoga (spiritual		Among the few ways to escape this low
	and mental discipline), special diets, or		status was to join a religious community,
	meditation.		to be a member of an extremely wealthy
14	Their goal was to achieve		family, or to be a courtesan.
	moksha—liberation from the cycle of birth,	34	The Gupta period, while dominated by
	death, and rebirth or reaching the best		Hinduism, was characterized by religious
	karma that you could actually reach. The		toleration and saw the development of the
	ideas of these religious dissidents are		classic form of Hindu temples with
	reflected in the Upanishads.		exterior courtyard, inner shrine, and wall
15	Jainism. Jainism was founded by		decorations.
	Mahavira (540–468 b.c.e.). Jains practiced	35	Gupta India was linked to the outside
	nonviolence and went to extremes in their		world by extensive trade networks. Trade
	attempts not to kill any living thing The		with southeast and east Asia was
	most extreme went naked and starved		particularly flourishing.
	themselves to death. The less extreme	36	In 550 c.e the Gupta empire collapsed
	devoted themselves to commerce and		under the financial burden of defense
	banking—occupations that, unlike		against the Huns. Harsha (r. 606–647 c.e),
	agriculture, do not require one to kill.		whose kingdom is described by the Chinese
16	Buddhism. Siddhartha Gautama founded		pilgrim Xuanzang, briefly reunited
	Buddhism His title, “Buddha,” means		northern India. After Harsha, northern
	“Enlightened One.” Alienated by both the		India again fell into political
	extremes of a wealthy youth and six years		fragmentation.
	of asceticism, Siddhartha Gautama set	37	During the Gupta period numerous small
	forth his teaching of the “Four Noble		kingdoms ruled the Deccan and south India.
	Truths” and of the Eightfold Path that		The most notable of these were the
	would lead the individual to		southern warrior kingdoms of the Pallavas
	enlightenment.		and the Cholas.
17	Fasting Buddha This sculpture of the	38	Southeast Asia, 50–1025 c.e.
	Buddha, showing the effects of a	39	Geography and Resources. Southeast
	protracted fast, is from Gandhara in		Asia has three geographical zones: (1) the
	northwest India. It displays the influence		Indo-china mainland; (2) the Malay
	of Greek artistic styles emanating from		peninsula; and (3) the islands. The area
	Greek settlements established in that		stands between China and India, and has
	region by Alexander the Great in the late		been influenced by both civilizations.
	fourth century B.C.E. (Courtesy, Robert	40	Natural resources include fertile
	Fisher). Copyright © Houghton Mifflin		agricultural lands, dependable monsoon
	Company. All rights reserved. Fasting		rains, and several growing seasons a year.
	Buddha.		This enabled the area to support a large,
18	Some of his followers took vows of		dense population.
	celibacy, nonviolence, and poverty. The	41	Early Civilization. Early inhabitants
	original form of Buddhism centered on the		of Southeast Asia practiced swidden (slash
	individual’s attempts to gain		and burn) agriculture and domesticated
	enlightenment through moderate living,		important crops and animals, including
	self-discipline, and meditation Their goal		rice, soybeans, sugar cane, chickens, and
	was to achieve nirvana—release from the		pigs.
	cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.	42	Southeast Asia received waves of
19	According to Buddhist teaching, all		migration of Malay peoples from southern
	things are composite, including the		China. Malay migrations subsequently
	individual This stands in contrast to the		continued into the Pacific islands and
	Vedic belief in the existence of an		into the Indian Ocean. Early Malay groups
	eternal soul (atman). After the death of		in Southeast Asia lived in small villages,
	the Buddha, some of his followers		manufactured bronze tools, and were
	organized themselves into monasteries and		organized in small political units.
	nunneries They developed a complex,	43	The first large states in Southeast
	hierarchical religion, complete with		Asia emerged in the early centuries c.e.
	worship of the Buddha, reverence for		in response to the position of Southeast
	bodhisattvas (people trying to gain		Asia as a crossroads for trade and travel
	enlightenment), and artistic		between India and China. Trade brought
	representations of the Buddha.		business; it also brought Hindu/Buddhist
20	The religion broke into two major		culture.
	schools: Mahayana and Theravada. Mahayana	44	The first major state to appear in
	incorporated the new beliefs, while		Southeast Asia was Funan (first through
	Theravada followed the original teaching		sixth centuries b.c.e.) in the Mekong
	of the Buddha more closely.		delta area. Funan thrived due to its
21	The Mauryan Empire, 324 b.c.e.–184		domination of the Isthmus of Kra. Funan’s
	b.c.e. The core of the Mauryan Empire was		decline in the sixth century may be
	the kingdom of Magadha They benefited from		related to the opening of new trade routes
	its strategic location and plentiful		that bypassed Funan.
	agricultural and iron resources The	45	The Srivijayan Kingdom. Srivijaya was
	Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta		located on Sumatra and dominated the new
	and expanded by himself and his successors		southern trade route through the Strait of
	Bindusara and Ashoka until it included		Malacca as well as other shipping routes
	almost the entire subcontinent.		through the area of modern Malaysia and
22	Caves at Ajanta During the		Indonesia.
	fifteen-year reign of its founder, Chandra	46	The Srivijayan political system knit
	Gupta (320-335) and the forty-year reigns		together four different ecological zones
	of his three successors, the power and		and their local rulers under the authority
	influence of the Gupta Empire reached		of the Srivijayan king. These four zones
	across northern and central India. During		were: (1) the core area along the Musi
	and after the Gupta period, natural		River; (2) the upland Sumatran interior;
	caves--like the cave temples at Ajanta, in		(3) river ports; and (4) the fertile rice
	central India, shown here--were turned		lands of central Java.
	into complexes of shrines decorated with	47	The Srivijayan kings maintained their
	sculpture and painting. (Dinodia Picture		control over this complex system through a
	Agency). Copyright © Houghton Mifflin		combination of military power, diplomacy,
	Company. All rights reserved. Caves at		control of trade, and the techniques of
	Ajanta.		the “theater-state.” Kings used the
23	The Mauryan government made its		splendor of their capital to attract
	capital at the walled and moated city of		resources and labor. The temporal power of
	Pataliputra The imperial establishment,		the kings was enhanced by popular belief
	including a large army, was supported by a		in their magical powers. Kings were
	25 percent tax on the agricultural		associated with forces of fertility. They
	products of the empire and by state		also patronized Buddhist monasteries and
	monopolies on mines, shipbuilding, and		schools.
	armaments.	48	Indian culture exercised a powerful
24	The most famous Mauryan emperor is		influence on Srivijayan concepts of
	Ashoka (r. 269–232 b.c.e.). Ashoka, shaken		kingship and government, while the Hindu
	by the carnage in a brutal war of		and Buddhist religions became the dominant
	expansion in the south, converted to		faiths of the region. Srivijayans did not,
	Buddhism His Buddhist policies of		however, simply imitate India; they
	government are preserved in edicts that		borrowed selectively from Indian
	were inscribed on rocks and pillars at		civilization and adapted what they
	various points throughout his empire.		borrowed to their own culture and needs.
25	Ashoka's column The best preserved of	49	Changes in trade routes led to the
	the pillars that King Ashoka erected in		decline of Srivijaya in the eleventh
	about 240 B.C.E. is this one in the Bihar		century. The capital was destroyed in 1025
	region, near Nepal. The solid shaft of		by the Chola kingdom.
	polished sandstone rises 32 feet in the
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